3D PRINT USING OUR FEP FILM
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Netfil Clear edge Materials and Solutions
cecil@netfilclearedge.com arfacebow@gmail.com brianbinne64@gmail.com brian@netfilclearedge.com
GLIMMER FEP Film®
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The Science Behind Glimmer FEP Film® (In Brief)
Our Glimmer FEP Film® introduces a controlled macrotextured surface that becomes imprinted onto every 3D-printed layer during 3D-printing. This macrotexturing transforms interlayer bonding from purely chemical adhesion into macro-mechanical interlocking between 3D-printed layers.
The resulting macro-mechanical keying reduces interlayer shear compliance and improves the apparent bending stiffness of the 3D-printed part or component, without altering its geometry or intrinsic material modulus. Our macro texture also reduces peel forces.
By increasing apparent bending stiffness, overall deformation during bending is reduced. Reduced deformation leads to lower cyclic strain during repeated loading.
Since fatigue failure in 3D-printed structures often initiates under cyclic and high-strain-rate loading conditions, reducing cyclic strain directly improves damage tolerance and apparent fracture toughness (K app) or (K c) . Through suppression of interlayer slip and enhancement of structural coupling, the durability or damage tolerance of the 3D-printed structure is significantly improved.
Glimmer FEP Film® will improve the extrinsic fracture toughness of the 3D printed component through structural or macro-mechanical interlocking between 3D printed layers, with the intrinsic fracture toughness (K₁C) of the 3D printed resin component continuing to remain the same.
The Working Principle of Glimmer FEP Film® (In Detail)
In conventional 3D printing, smooth printed layers rely primarily on microscopic chemical adhesion without macroscopic interlocking or macro mechanical keying. Under dynamic loading, this limited interlayer coupling permits relative shear deformation, increases shear compliance, and leads to stress localization based on the loading strain rate. This behavior an be compared at a conceptual level to gears with shallow engagement, where insufficient interlocking reduces the efficiency of load tran
The Netfil Glimmer FEP Film® Solution
- Glimmer FEP Film® introduces an architected interface onto every 3D-printed layer, enabling macro-mechanical interlocking between successive layers, similar to the deeper engagement of meshing gears.
- With stronger engagement, relative shear deformation between layers is suppressed, allowing loads to transfer more efficiently across the structure. This reduces interlayer shear compliance and enables the laminated 3D-printed part to behave more like a unified, mechanically engaged section under dynamic loading while reducing the crack driving force (G).
Increase in Apparent Bending Stiffness
- When the 3D-printed layers engage mechanically and begin to act as a unified section, the structural response of the part during bending changes. This behavior is analogous to a reduction in shear lag within a layered or built-up beam, where improved interlayer coupling enables more uniform load transfer and more efficient structural action.
- Because interlayer slip is suppressed, deformation under bending decreases. The laminated structure resists deformation or bending more effectively, and the apparent bending stiffness of the 3D-printed part increases.
- Importantly, this improvement in a 3D-printed component does not arise from any change in its geometrical constraint or intrinsic material modulus. Instead, it results from improved structural coupling between the 3D-printed layers.
A note on the Bending Stiffness improvement found with the use of our Glimmer FEP Film®
- The theoretical bending stiffness of a structure is defined by the relationship EI, where E represents the elastic modulus of the material and I represents the second moment of area determined by geometry.
- Changes in theoretical bending stiffness occur only when the material modulus changes or when the geometrical constraint of the structure is modified. (For example: when a solid rod is replaced with a tube of the same thickness.).
- Since our Glimmer FEP Film® does not alter the geometrical constraint of a 3D-printed part and does not modify the intrinsic elastic modulus of the resin, the theoretical bending stiffness EI remains of the printed component remains unchanged.
- Instead, the observed improvement arises from a notable improvement in extrinsic composite fracture toughness and reduced interlayer shear compliance, which allow stresses and strains to distribute or couple more efficiently across the composite during high speed bending.
Reduced Cyclic Strain and Improved Damage Tolerance
- Once the apparent bending stiffness of a structure increases, the structure or beam deflects less under the same load. Reduced deflection means the beam experiences lower cyclic strain during repeated loading.
- Since fatigue failure in laminated or layered structures often begins with strain accumulation and crack initiation at surface or sub-surface defects or pores, lowering cyclic strain directly improves damage tolerance of a 3D printed component.
- By suppressing interlayer slip and allowing stresses to couple more efficiently across the structure, our Glimmer FEP Film® reduces localized strain amplification within the 3D printed part. This delays crack initiation under cyclic or dynamic loading.
How our Glimmer FEP Film® stiffens composite Neutral Bending Axis and the Role of Shear in Layered Structures
- When a beam undergoes bending, different regions of the structure experience different types of stress.
- The outer surface on one side of the beam undergoes tension, while the opposite surface experiences compression. Between these two regions lies the neutral bending axis, where the bending stress transitions from tension to compression.
- Although bending stresses are highest at the outer surfaces, shear stresses are highest near the neutral axis in the central region of the beam. In laminated or layered structures such as 3D-printed parts, this central region is also where interlayer slip can initiate if the bonding between layers is weak.
- When interlayer shear compliance is high, microscopic sliding between layers can begin near the neutral axis during bending. This sliding reduces structural coupling across the beam thickness and allows greater deformation to occur.
- By introducing macro architected surface between 3D-printed layers, Glimmer FEP Film® suppresses this interlayer slip. As a result, stresses are transmitted more efficiently across the entire thickness of the structure, improving the structural integrity of the laminated beam during bending.
- Glimmer FEP Film® texture introduces macro-scale architecture at the very level of the 3D printed lamina. For very thin 3D printed layers, the enhanced interlayer shear coupling, allows the laminate to behave closer to a monolithic beam. Depending on the 3D printed layer thickness and the texture amplitude our Glimmer Film would introduce, geometrical stiffening of the individual 3D printed laminae may also contribute to the overall bending stiffness of a 3D printed component.
The Role of Porosity in 3D Printed Resin Composites
- While structural coupling between layers is critical, the intrinsic properties of the resin composite itself also influence mechanical performance such as fracture toughness.
- Resin composites used in 3D printing often contain micro- and nano-scale porosity introduced during manufacture, mixing, handling, and printing. These pores act as surface and sub-surface stress concentrators and reduce the effective elastic modulus of the material.
- Under cyclic loading, such defects can serve as initiation points for crack formation, particularly in regions of tensile loading during bending.
- For this reason, improving the structural engagement between layers is only one part of our Netfil solution. Reducing internal porosity within the resin matrix is equally important for enhancing the overall mechanical performance or durability of the 3D printed structure.
NETFIL Industrial Processing and Material Integrity
- While improved structural coupling between layers increases the apparent bending stiffness and fracture toughness of the 3D printed structure, the intrinsic material properties of the composite would also influence its bending performance and intrinsic fracture toughness ( k1C). Porosity or more specifically the nanoporosity at the surface or subsurface of 3D printed resin composite components would reduce both their elastic modulus and intrinsic fracture toughness ( K1C).
- To address this material-level limitation, we offer NETFIL Industrial Processing, a solution designed to reduce micro- and nano-scale porosity within resin composite liquids and pastes.
- By reducing the nanoscaled voids or defects within a resin matrix, our NETFIL processing improves the intrinsic elastic modulus and fracture toughness of of the 3D printed resin composite. Since the theoretical bending stiffness of a structure is defined by the relationship EI, where E represents the elastic modulus and I represents the second moment of area, an increase in the elastic modulus directly contributes to the realized bending stiffness of the printed part or structure.
- When our NETFIL-processed resins are 3D printed using our Glimmer FEP Film®, factors influencing bending stiffness and fracture toughness are addressed simultaneously.
- Our Glimmer FEP Film® improves structural coupling between layers by reducing interlayer shear compliance and increases apparent bending stiffness and fracture toughness.
- Our NETFIL Industrial Resin Processing Solution on the other hand, improves the intrinsic elastic modulus(E)of the composite, by reducing nanoporosity and submicroscopic voids, thereby improving its intrinsic fracture toughness.
- Together, Netfil allows the 3D printed composite to be tailored through both structural architecture and material integrity, creating a flexible and open platform for optimizing composite mechanical performance without altering composite stoichometry. (How much of monomer turns into polymer and the resulting material property tradeoff.).
Mechanical Testing Considerations for 3D-Printed Components
- The structural advantages introduced by macro-mechanical interlocking and reduced material porosity become most meaningful when a 3D-printed component is evaluated under loading conditions that resemble real service environments.
- Many conventional mechanical tests are performed under quasi-static loading, where strain rates are extremely low. Under these conditions, 3D-printed components may appear to perform adequately because deformation occurs very slowly, and surface or sub-surface voids or defects present over the composite may not immediately reveal themselves as fracture initiaton sites.
- At the opposite extreme, very high strain-rate impact tests, such as Charpy impact testing, subject the material to extremely rapid loading. In these cases, fracture occurs instantaneously, and benefits such as improved interlayer stress coupling or reduced surface or sub-surface porosity that delay cracks from initiating, may not be clearly distinguishable.
- While both quasi-static and impact tests provide useful baseline information on both intensive and extensive material properties of 3D printed composite, they do not always represent the in-service mechanical conditions experienced by many functional 3D-printed components such as dental restorations and prostheses.
- Dynamic loading which may be cyclic often lies between these two extremes. Cyclic testing reveals the connection between interlayer shear compliance and the crack driving force (G) which is required for a crack to initiate in 3D-printed composites.
- Under cyclic loading conditions, we have found that there is a combined improvement or advantage introduced by both our Glimmer FEP architecture and NETFIL processing in reducing the propensity for cracks to initiate and propagate in 3D printed structures .
Uniform Macrotexture for Reliable Structural Performance
For improved structural performance or composite fracture toughness, the interlayer macrotexture must remain very uniform across the printed layer. In our experimental verification experiments ,we deliberately introduced irregular FEP textures with pits and bumps. We also introduced small and irregular features thinking that it will reduce the shear compliance between layers. But our testing revealed that such a film produced only brittle coupons that fractured easily.
- It should also be noted at this point that our macrotextured GLIMMER FEP FILM architecture will not increase the intrinsic fracture toughness of a 3D printed resin or resin composite. Only the extrinsic fracture toughness of a 3D-printed composite is improved by using our GLIMMER FEP FILM architecture. Intrinsic and extrinsic fracture toughness differ primarily in where they operate relative to a crack tip and how they affect crack initiation versus crack growth or propogation.
Intrinsic Fracture Toughness Of Composite
- Action Location: Acts ahead of the crack tip.
- Mechanism: Relies on the material's inherent ability to undergo localized inelastic or plastic deformation to blunt the crack tip.
- Effect on Toughness: Increases both crack initiation toughness and crack growth or propagation toughness. It is a material property that remains relatively independent of crack length.
- Common In: Ductile materials like metals and alloys (where plasticity governs energy absorption).
- Most important point to be noted: 3d printed resin composites can never be compared with ductile materials like metals or metal alloys when it comes to their intrinsic fracture toughness. But what can be clearly understood is the fact that the defect- free nature of a 3D printing resin composite, will most notably influence its intrinsic fracture toughness. This is because nanoporosity or voids present over composite surface or sub-surface will invariably tend to concentrate both tensile and compressive stresses in a 3D printed composite structure. These voids or pores can fall under a wide porosity spectrum and can be catagoried into macro voids or large macroscopic air bubbles, and also the invisible submicroscopic free volume voids (FVVS) present in the composite resin matrix. Composite surface flaws introduced during post- processing and final curing can also significanly reduce the intrinsic fracture toughness of the 3D printed component. Post-processing involving the use of very harsh solvents such as IPA ( Isopropyl Alcohol) for washing, will extract the essential monomer required for a more thorough or complete cure of the partially set composite surface. Because of the inadequate conversion taking place on the surface and sub-surface of the resin composite, the experimental intrinsic fracture toughness realized using quasi-static loading may be totally different from the in-service fracture toughness value realized during dynamic and high strain- rate based cyclical end-use loading of the 3D printed resin composite. No matter how well the composite resin is manufactured or processed, the surface flaws introduced during the post-processing steps and final curing can turn out to be detrimental to the intrinsic fracture toughness ( k1C) of the composite. Our Netfil Process is based on our proprietary processing techniques which are directed at removing the porosity from resin composite till a point where a significant difference or reduction in notch sensitivity is clearly seen in the composite. This reduction in 3D printed resin composite notch sensitivity can also be easily demoed before all our stakeholders. We are also in the process of bringing out our new washing and curing strategies, particularly tailored for Netfil, and which are gentler on the resin composite surface, and won't swell the composite resin surface like what IPA does.
Extrinsic Fracture Toughness
- Location: Acts at or behind the crack tip (in the "crack wake").
- Mechanism: Relies on crack-tip shielding processes that reduce the local stress and strain actually experienced at the crack tip. Common methods include crack deflection, twist, uncracked ligament bridging, and fiber/grain bridging.
- Effect on Toughness: Requires a pre-existing crack to function; therefore, it may only affects crack growth toughness rather than crack initiation. It produces a rising Resistance Curve (R-curve), meaning fracture resistance increases as the crack gets longer.
- Common In: Brittle or hierarchical materials like ceramics, bone, and nacre, where intrinsic plasticity is low and the loading strain rates during function or service are high .
- Most important point to be noted: K1C Mode I (plain-strain fracture toughness) is fundamentally a measure of the intrinsic fracture toughness of the composite material, and does not capture the full benefit of extrinsic or hierarchical structural mechanisms or features which may be present within a composite structure. True durability of a 3D printed composite material cannot be captured by a single metric like K1C toughness of the material. It requires optimizing the synergy between crack initiation resistance and crack propagation resistance in the composite material or structure. Traditional engineering has heavily over-indexed on K1C fracture toughness because it provides a conservative "fail-safe" boundary for structural design. However, optimizing exclusively for K1C creates a massive engineering blind spot. Since 3D printing is a layer -by-layer process, it offers a unique possibility to introduce and also tailor structural mechanisms or hierarchial features that boost extrinsic fracture toughness of the 3D-printed composite. Extrinsic fracture toughening mechanisms or processes operate around or behind an advancing crack front within the composite material. These mechanisms act by shielding the crack tip from the full applied stress, thereby lowering the effective driving force (G) for crack propagation. In simple terms, the stress intensity experienced at the crack front becomes lower than the externally applied value.
K_tip < K_applied
- Several well known structural and/or microstructural mechanisms can contribute to this effect in fiber or particulate reinforced composites : Crack bridging – intact ligaments or reinforcing structures span the crack surfaces and continue to carry load, slowing the separation of the crack faces. Crack deflection and twisting – instead of propagating in a straight path, the crack is forced to change direction due to the presence of tortuous interfaces, increasing the energy required for further crack growth. Fiber or ligament pull-out – reinforcing elements absorb energy as they are gradually pulled out during fracture. Microcracking around the crack front – small distributed cracks form ahead of the main crack and dissipate energy, reducing the driving force for crack extension. Geometric or mechanical interlocking – internal structural features act as mechanical keys that resist crack opening. Layered or architectured structures – internal architecture forces the crack to navigate a more complex path through the composite material or structure. Because these mechanisms progressively resist crack propagation, the fracture resistance of the material can increase as the crack grows. This behavior is commonly described as R-curve toughening, where the resistance to fracture rises with crack extension. Together, these mechanisms illustrate that the fracture resistance of composite materials often extends beyond the intrinsic crack-tip property measured by K₁C, arising also from structural processes that slow, deflect, or shield the advancing crack. In this context , our Glimmer FEP introduces architected interlayers within the 3D - printed composite which are also effective before a critical crack is formed during rampant loading. We have extensively studied the notch sensitivity of sharp V-notched specimen samples 3D printed using our Glimmer FEP film. We found a very significant reduction in sharp V-notch sensitivity during high strain- rate loading. We also found a very strong connection or association between sharp V-notch sensitivity and harsh resin post-processing or cleaning techniques. V-notch sensitivity of Glimmer FEP film 3D printed samples substantially decreases when very harsh post-processing protocols are not used.
GLIMMER FEP Film® PROLONGS CRACK INITIATION PERIOD
Our Glimmer Film® reduces interlayer shear lag and the applied load is distributed more uniformly across the composite structure. This prevents the buildup of localized stresses at weak composite interfaces and lowers the local strain energy release rate (G) at potential defect sites, making it more difficult for a crack to nucleate on the surface of the composite structure. As a result, more severe dynamic loading conditions are required to initiate a crack, thereby improving resistance to crack initiation. While intrinsic fatigue crack growth behavior remains unchanged, our Glimmer architecture reduces the applied crack driving force, thereby improving damage tolerance by delaying the onset of measurable crack propagation.
EFFECT OF ARCHITECTED INTERLAYERS ON CRACK DRIVING FORCE/ EN
In a bending structure, there is a decrease in the elastic strain energy (dU) when a crack begins to grow with an increase in crack surface area (dA). As a result, some of the stored elastic strain energy is released. The crack driving force G depends on how quickly dU decreases as the crack surface area dA increases.
In a conventional layered material, interlayer shear compliance allows larger elastic deformation during bending, which means more strain energy is stored and released rapidly as the crack grows. This produces a larger value of dU, which increases the crack driving force. The crack driving force (G) is also dependent on the stress concentrating defects present over the surface of the composite. In fracture mechanics, stress-concentrating defects such as surface scratches, microscopic surface voids, or rough surface textures, directly amplify local stresses. While the global or nominal applied load on the component might be low, the local stress state near a surface defect spikes dramatically. The crack driving force (G) is mathematically tied to the stress field around a defect or crack tip. Higher localized stress means a massive concentration of elastic strain energy in that specific zone.
The glimmer macrotexture FEP sheet changes this behavior by reducing interlayer shear compliance and increasing the apparent bending stiffness of the structure. Because the structure becomes stiffer in bending, it stores less elastic strain energy during deformation and releases the strain energy more gradually and delays cracks from nucleating. As a result, the change in strain energy dU becomes smaller, which reduces the crack driving force G and delays crack initiation.
- Smooth laminate → high interlayer shear compliance → low bending stiffness → high elastic strain energy release → crack initiates easily
- Macro-textured laminate → reduced shear compliance → higher bending stiffness → lower elastic strain energy release → crack initiation suppressed
Span Length and Bending Stiffness
Span Length Matters: Why Long-Span Prostheses Require Greater Structural Stiffness
- Single-unit crowns manufactured using 3D printing are generally well-supported restorations because they are anchored directly to the underlying tooth structure. As a result, the effective span length of the restoration is very small, and the amount of bending or structural deflection during functional loading remains minimal. In contrast, larger restorations such as full-arch prostheses ( All-on-4s) behave more like long-span structural members. Because the prosthesis spans between multiple implant supports, the effective span length increases, which makes the restoration more susceptible to bending and tensile stresses during loading, resulting in higher deflection.
- This is where our Glimmer FEP film® technology becomes particularly valuable when it comes to esthetics. By simply introducing controlled macro-texture during the 3D printing process, our Glimmer film improves the structural stiffness of printed restorations, helping reduce deformation under bending or tensile loading. The color or shade of the 3D printed restoration or prosthesis remains unchanged. While even single-unit crowns benefit from improved compressive stiffness and structural integrity, the advantages become especially significant in long-span restorations, where controlling deflection is critical for durability and performance. In these cases, the Glimmer FEP film helps produce prostheses that are better able to resist and remain damage tolerant under functional or dynamic loading.
Effect of FEP macrotexture on fracture resistance
A simple verification experiment was conducted to examine the role of our NETFIL Glimmer ®FEP macrotexture on the mechanical behavior of 3D printed composite specimens. Our NETFIL Glimmer FEP film comes with a uniform rhomboid macrotexture. This ordered macrotexture produces a consistent structural macro mechanically keyed interface during layer-by-layer 3D printing.
To evaluate the importance of our even macrotexture , we replaced NETFIL Glimmer Film macrotextured surface with a highly irregular and pitted texture. Our objective was to determine the influence of FEP film texture over the fracture resistance of the resulting 3D printed composite or structure. We held all other variables as constant. The same resin material, printer, curing chamber and printing parameters were used in our experiment. The only change introduced was in the texture of our FEP film. The resulting 3D - printed specimens displayed a clear and significant difference in fracture resistance or toughness. We confirmed our finding again by 3D printing sharp V-notch samples to check for difference in notch sensitivity. The testing samples we 3D printed using the irregular pitted texture, exhibited noticeable brittle behavior or very high notch sensitivity, and they fractured readily even during manual bending tests.
In contrast, the test specimen samples we 3D printed using our NETFIL Glimmer® macrotexture film showed significantly greater resistance to fracture with significant reduction in sharp V- notch sensitivity. We have to mention at this point that we saw a notable increase in V-notch sensitivity of our NETFIL Glimmer® macrotexture film samples , when we introduced very harsh and unwanted post-processing protocols. We also have to state that the V-notch sensitivity did not increase even when we cured our NETFIL Glimmer® macrotexture film 3D printed samples for an extended period of 30 minutes.
Our experimental testing has demonstrated that the keying macrotexture of our NETFIL Glimmer® FEP film plays a crucial role in improving composite interlayer shear stiffness while enhancing extrinsic fracture toughness of our 3D printed composite structure.
Importantly, this type of simple verification test can be easily performed by our customers or stakeholders, allowing them to check the differences first hand.
The difference our GLIMMER film brings into the picture can be easily assessed by printing testing samples with a sharp V-notch in the center. The performance of extrinsic toughening architecture depends on the material's structural flaw tolerance vs. its critical flaw size. V-notched sample test is the perfect physical proof of a classic fracture mechanics threshold known as the intrinsic defect-sensitivity limit.
(often modeled by the El Haddad parameter)
SUMMARY
Our Glimmer FEP Film® introduces an architected interlayer interface that enables macro-mechanical interlocking between printed layers, also informing extrinsic composite toughening mechanism. By suppressing relative shear deformation between printed layers, the 3D-printed composite structure achieves more uniform stress distribution, reduces strain localization, and lowers the local crack-driving force (G) required for crack initiation. As a result, the material exhibits improved resistance to crack initiation and enhanced damage tolerance under dynamic loading.
Scientific Background and References
The mechanical behavior of layered structures is strongly influenced by the interaction between adjacent layers. In laminated materials, interlayer shear deformation can significantly affect bending response and structural stiffness. Research in composite mechanics, architected materials, and additive manufacturing has shown that modifying interface architecture and improving shear transfer between layers can substantially influence structural performance.
The following references provide scientific background relevant to these mechanisms.
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On the correction for shear of the differential equation for transverse vibrations of prismatic bars.
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Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials (2nd Edition).
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4. Layered Behavior in Additive Manufacturing
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Anisotropic material properties of fused deposition modeling ABS.
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On the use of shear-lag methods for analysis of stress transfer in composites.
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Redmond, K. (2019). Interlayer shear determines bending rigidity in van der Waals materials. MRS Bulletin (Materials Research Society), Cambridge University Press. Published November 19, 2019. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mrs-bulletin/news/interlayer-shear-determines-bending-rigidity-in-van-der-waals-materials
Tamburrino, F.; Aruanno, B.; Paoli, A.; Razionale, A.V.; Barone, S. Design and Effect of a Resin Infiltration Method to Enhance the Interlayer Adhesion of Additively Manufactured PEEK Parts. Polymers, 2025, 17(21), 2819.
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212819
Zhang, Y., et al. 3D Printing of Polymer Composites: Materials, Processes, and Applications. Matter, 5(6), 2022, pp. 1796–1829.
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🔗 https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(21)00517-8
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The Isogrid Structure of the Delta Launch Vehicle.
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XFEM Analysis of Crack Propagation in 3D-Printed Polymer Structures
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🔗 https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4494/9/10/339
Han, G., Han, X., & Hu, X. (2025).
Fracture Prediction for Large Concrete Structures Based on Boundary Effect Model (FPZ approach)
Netfil Clear edge Materials and Solutions
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